Renal colic, the excruciating pain caused by a stone passing down the urinary tract is well known in all countries.  The pain stops when the stone is passed naturally or removed by a surgeon.  A patient may never have another attack or attacks may recur at irregular and sometimes long intervals.  Most stones remain... 

The Adrenal Glands are composed of two distinct parts, the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex.  The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones Epinephrine and Norepinephrine in response to sympathetic stimulation.  The adrenal cortex secretes an entirely different group of hormones called “corticosteroids”. ... 

Esophagitis usually occurs in the lower esophagus as a result of irritating effect of acidic gastric reflux on the esophageal mucosa.  The common symptom is heartburn (burning epigastric substernal pain).  Other symptoms are regurgitation and dysphagia. Types of Esophagitis: Acute Esophagitis: Caused by ingestion... 

Pernicious anemia is a macrocytic (larger than normal RBC) and megaloblastic (immature, abnormal RBC progenitors in the bone marrow) anemia.  Pernicious anemia is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B12 (Cobalamin).  Generally, vitamin B12 deficiency occurs due to lack of Intrinsic Factor –IF.  Intrinsic Factor... 

Cirrhosis is the final stage of liver injury and degeneration.  It occurs in 15 % of heavy drinkers.  Other causes of liver cirrhosis are drug or chemical poisoning, hepatitis B virus, cystic fibrosis, etc.  Cirrhosis is characterized by liver necrosis meaning the normal liver tissue is gradually destroyed and replaced... 

Food that we eat is classified as follows on the basis of its cariogenicity activity: Cariogenic foods: These are foods that contain fermentable carbohydrates, which in contact with micro-organisms in the mouth can cause a drop in salivary pH to 5.5 or less and stimulate caries process.  Examples are foods rich in...